Table 4 Onsite buprenorphine treatment at syringe services programs

Bachhuber 2018, USA (Philadelphia) [77]

Cohort study

(a) Treatment Retention; (b) % participants with positive buprenorphine and opioid UDT

(a) 3, 6, 9 and 12-month retention: 77%, 65%, 59%, 56%;

(b) Positive buprenorphine UDT at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months: 88% (n = 50/57), 100% (n = 31/31), 96% (n = 23/24), and 95% (n = 18/19); positive opioid UDT at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months were 19% (n = 11/57),13% (n = 4/31), 17% (n = 4/24), and 16% (n = 3/19)

Hill 2022, USA (D.C.) [55]

Cohort study

(a) Treatment Retention (buprenorphine treatment); (b) % participants with positive buprenorphine urine drug test (UDT) and opioid UDT

(a) 1, 6 and 12-month retention: 82%, 65%, 59%;

(b) Positive buprenorphine UDT at 1, 6 and 12 months: 80% (n = 32/40), 88% (n = 28/32), 79% (n = 23/29);

(c) opioid positive UDT at 1, 6 and 12 months: 73% (n = 29/40, 56% (n = 18/32), 79% (n = 23/29)

Hood 2020, USA (Seattle) [54]

Cohort study

(a) Treatment Retention (time in treatment, median days); (b) % urine drug tests (UDT) positive for buprenorphine and opioid UDT

(a) Retention: 21 days (IQR 5–154) for patients with a single care episode, 76 days (IQR 24–129) for patients with intermittent care;

(b) Between the first and sixth visits, % positive buprenorphine UDTs increased (33% to 96%, P < 0.01) and other opioids decreased (90% to 41%, P <  0.01)

Jakubowski 2022, USA (New York City) [78]

Cohort study

(a) Treatment Retention; (b) Patient characteristics associated with retention; (c) Buprenorphine and illicit opioid use by UDT (of 82 participants with 2 or more UDT)

(a) 1, 3 and 6 month retention: 62%, 43%, 31%;

(b) Retained vs. not retained at 180 days: Current IDU: 42% vs. 66% (p < 0.01);

(c) Median percentage of buprenorphine-positive UDTs was 71% (IQR 40–100%) and opioid-positive UDTs was 50% (IQR 11–100%)

Rosecrans 2022, USA (Baltimore) [79]

Cohort study

(a) Treatment Retention; (b) Factors associated with retention

(a) 1 and 3-month retention: 56.0%, 26.9%; (b) Factors associated with 3-month retention: white race (vs. Black race): (AOR = 0.32, 95% CI 0.16–0.61);

Receiving HCV treatment: AOR = 5.51, 95% CI 1.99–15.27)

Rosenthal 2020, USA (D.C.) [58]

Single arm trial

(a) Uptake buprenorphine treatment; (b) Treatment Retention; (c) % urine drug tests (UDTs) positive for opioids

(a) Thirty-three (33%) patients were receiving MOUD at screening

Of the 67 not receiving MOUD, 53 (79%) started buprenorphine treatment;

(b) At week 24, 68 (68%) patients were receiving MOUD; (c) opioid-positive UDTs: baseline (80%), 4 weeks (77%), 12 weeks (70%) and 24 weeks (68%)

Stancliff 2012, USA (New York City) [80]

Cohort study

(a) Treatment retention; (b) Factors associated with retention

(a) 3, 6, 9 and 12-month retention: 42%, 31%, 28%, 20%;

(b) Factors associated with active prescriptions:

African American race 41% vs. 21%; Latino 29% vs. 50%